[Abstract] American in China economic policy not only the use of including import restrictions, export expansion and the exchange rate, economic weapons, also made use of many non economic means: politicizing economic and trade issues; grafting on the trade deficit and the exchange rate and other issues, the scapegoat China as America's own economic problems; asked China to take greater responsibility for the balance of the world economy and the United States economic hegemony; defame China's economic development model. In the United States, the United States not only examines the economic and trade relations between China and the United States through the perspective of realism, but also emphasizes the relative benefits. Moreover, it also takes the privilege and the strong words given by the system to the current international system ".
Key words: economic policy of the United States of China; non economic means; system privilege; paper Download
Since the end of World War II, the United States has been at the core of the world economic system, for the development of his country's economy and its potential impact on the status of the United States is very sensitive and alert. Since the reform and opening up, China has created a miracle of economic sustained and rapid development, so the United States has attracted special attention, become the focus of the U.S. foreign economic policy. The United States not only worried about the rise of China's economy will challenge its economic dominance, but also worried that China's development model will undermine the "Washington consensus" in the world's appeal. In order to dispel these concerns, the United States has adopted a series of policy mix, economic and non economic means to get the best use of the. This paper intends to analyze and explain the economic and non economic means in the economic and trade policies of the United States.
After the normalization of Sino US relations, the United States in the economic field of China, including the traditional trade protectionism, import restrictions and export expansion, but also includes the beginning of 1970s, the exchange rate protectionism, and constantly ask the appreciation of the renminbi.
In the beginning of the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and the United States since the cold war, the Sino US economic and trade relations are still in its initial stage. Shortly after the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries, the United States, which is the most favoured nation treatment in China, reflected in the bilateral trade volume increased from 1114600000 in 1980 to $4812700000 in 1978, an increase of more than 4 times (Table 1). American scholar Nancy Tucker (NancyBernkopf Tucker) is summarized the during this period of American trade policy toward China general characteristics: "(US) for Soviet strategic plan prompted from Nixon to the period of Bush Government of the United States to China to make compromises, complex triangular political relations and promote the between the two countries trade growth and cultural ties." 1.
But even in this period, with the rapid growth of some of the products in China's exports to the United States, the United States immediately waved trade protectionism stick. A famous case occurred between 1982 and 1983. In the course of the two countries signed second textile trade agreements, the United States strongly demanded that China's exports to the United States of America can not exceed 1% of the annual growth rate, the implementation of strict import restrictions on Chinese textiles, thus ignited the first trade war between China and the United states. 2 the growth of the two countries' trade was a serious setback, and the bilateral trade volume fell from $5468000000 in 1981 to $5195800000 in 1982 and $4420200000 in 1983 (Table 1). After 1980s, with the rapid expansion of bilateral economic and trade relations, the United States repeatedly used this tool to limit all kinds of products from china.
From the beginning of the second half of the 1980s, as China applied to join the general agreement on Tariffs and trade (GATT), the United States of the Chinese trade policy added to the a new method -- export expansion, China open to American products in the domestic market. China and the United States on this issue, the first time to pay the first weight in 1992 - 1993, the United States asked China to cancel such as import quotas, import licenses, domestic trade barriers and other non-tariff trade barriers for U.S. products to enter the Chinese market clearance. In August 1992, the United States unilaterally China immediately according to the conditions of opening up the Chinese market, and for a total price of $39 billion $Chinese products forced retaliation tariff issued the threat of sanctions, which led to China's counter measures. 3 1993, the newly appointed Clinton administration to the Chinese government to open up the market of the final period, a new round of disputes in China to cancel the import quota of 283 kinds of products, and to reduce the tariff of 234 kinds of products. 4.
In the Chinese and American governments on China's accession to the WTO negotiations, the United States proposed conditions are extremely harsh. Steven and Cohen (StephenCohen) et al discussed can be described as sharply: "(the United States) give China permanent most favored nation treatment and support China's entry into the essence of the world and not help China to do good, and its essence is from the rising economic powers in the hands to grab as much as possible compromise, forcing the utmost to open up the market." Two in the bilateral agreement between China and the United States in China, the United States has made a full expression of the traditional trade protection and the 5 of the main advantages of the two sides, the import and export restrictions and export expansion. On the export expansion, China not only agreed to reduce tariffs and non-tariff trade barriers, but also agreed to open up the domestic market, in addition to agriculture and industry, including many important areas of services such as telecommunications, finance, insurance and asset management and other important areas are allowed to enter. In terms of import restrictions, the United States has forced China to accept the so-called "WTO commitments" (plus - WTO), does not recognize China's market economy status, allowing the United States to use in a certain class of products in China to use the "security clause" and "special safeguard clause" and other trade relief measures. For the United States to force China to accept these "super WTO obligations", American economist Nicholas Radi (NicholasLardy) commented: "these conditions...... Too harsh, has been contrary to the basic principles of the wto." 6.
After China's entry into the WTO, the United States make full use of China's accession to the WTO to make concessions, import restrictions and export expansion two traditional protectionism razor edged. The world bank's "global anti-dumping database" shows that the George W. Bush administration's eight years in office, the United States launched a total of 64 anti-dumping investigations, an average of 8 per year. From 2009 to 2011 the Obama administration during the reign of three years ago, initiated by the United States to China anti-dumping cases remained high strength and high frequency, launched a total of 21, an annual average of 7. And the first quarter of 2012, the United States and China launched 2 anti-dumping investigations. 7 while the United States is not lax in opening the Chinese market, the opening of China's financial market as the main target.
Exchange rate protectionism "8" with China's successful accession to the World Trade Organization in 2001, the economic and trade relations between China and the United States have been rapidly improved. At the same time, a prominent issue of China US trade volume growth is the trade imbalance between the two countries. For America's huge trade deficit with China, economists have a lot of discussion, mainly in the United States of America's low savings and high consumption, 9 global production networks in China as a global production network processing and assembly base position, 10 u.s.. However, the U.S. government and politicians in search of reasons not to comply with the economic logic, but from the political needs of the U.S. trade deficit is mainly attributed to the RMB exchange rate.
The United States for China's rate of exchange rate protection, starting in 2003. Many American politicians believe that China is deliberately "artificially" holding down its currency in order to boost exports and imports. China's "manipulation" of the exchange rate is the "culprit" of the US's huge trade deficit with China ". In view of this, the United States believes that the best way to reduce the trade deficit is to force the RMB appreciation, and therefore increased the pressure on the Chinese government. According to Gary Hofbauer (GaryC.Hufbauer), an incomplete statistics, from 2003 to 2006, the United States Congress proposed 23 bills and resolutions relating to the exchange rate of RMB, or require a direct appreciation of the renminbi, or the requirements of China as a currency manipulator". [13] best grabbed the RMB exchange rate question fuss that lawmakers should belong to New York Senator Charles Schumer (Charles Schumer) and South Carolina Senator Lindsey Graham, a Lindsey Graham. Since 2003, two people have jointly sponsored a bill requiring the appreciation of the renminbi in the short term of 27.5%, otherwise it will retaliate with punitive tariffs. 14 in addition to the United States Congress, the U.S. administration has repeatedly accused China's exchange rate policy. The first half of the United States Treasury submitted to Congress the international economic and exchange rate policy report every time that the yuan is too low, asking the Chinese government to appreciate the renminbi. In order to ease the pressure on the United States, the Chinese government began to adjust the exchange rate policy in July 1, 2005, the RMB appreciation. As of March 2012, the appreciation rate has reached 24%. 15.
It is worth noting that the appreciation of the renminbi did not bring a decline in the U.S. trade deficit with china. Both Chinese and American scholars have found that with the continuous appreciation of the RMB, the United States has not been significantly improved China's exports, the United States and China's trade deficit has been growing trend. "16" in the face of these findings, the advocates of exchange rate protectionism should be reflected, but they are the measures to blame the RMB appreciation is not enough, further requirements of the Chinese government to adjust exchange rate policy. An article in the financial times on July 2008 pointed out that the appreciation of the Chinese currency has only reached the level of 1/3 to 1/2 of the actual demand ". 17 because of the guidance of this idea, a large part of the United States has always regarded the value of the renminbi as the main reason for the imbalance between China and the United States. RMB exchange rate has always been one of the focus issues in the bilateral economic and trade relations between China and the United States in recent years.
Non economic means
In addition to the economic means, the United States in the China trade policy in order to maintain their own interests also used the a large number of non economic means, mainly including: will economic issues politicized, hinder the normal economic activities; grafting on the trade deficit and the exchange rate and other issues, the scapegoat China as America's own economic problems; asked China to take greater responsibility for the balance of the world economy and the United States economic hegemony; to slander China represents the economic development model.
After the end of the cold war, the original national security concept has changed, and the economic security has become the focus of most countries. The result is that the political tendency in the process of economic and trade policies is becoming more and more serious. As the dominant postwar world politics and economic system of the United States, the political tendency of economic and trade issues more than other countries. American scholar i.m. Deisler in the American trade politics, "a book also pointed out that: under the so-called" 1934 institution ", between the executive and legislative agencies and between the two parties are a kind of tacit understanding, does not use trade issues in political attacks. However, with the rise of Western Europe and Japan after the Second World War, the tacit understanding began to shake since 1970s, and the "political" has become an inevitable part of the United States foreign trade policy making process. 18.
In view of the strong momentum of China's sustained economic development in recent years, China has naturally become a victim of the United States Trade and politics. According to the study of Chinese scholars, the political practice of the United States in China Economic and trade policy has covered almost all areas and issues in the bilateral economic and trade relations, including the Sino US trade imbalance, the RMB exchange rate, China's export products in the United States, "market economy" status, trade relief, export control and investment issues, etc.. This kind of "Pan oriented" tendency of the US trade in China not only hurt the bilateral economic and trade cooperation, but also increased the mutual distrust between the two countries, which limited the relationship between the two countries' political and security ties, which hindered the play of the external effects of the two countries." 19.
America will be the most famous example is the 2005 CNOOC acquisition of Unocal for Sino US trade politics case. CNOOC made a bid for U.S. oil company Unocal, rival Chevron and the United States politicians immediately to "threaten national security" grounds obstruct the acquisition. A purely economic activity has been political. Under the United States strong political pressure, CNOOC eventually quit the acquisition and Chevron to lower than the price of CNOOC's bid for the bid for Unocal. 20.
Looking for scapegoats and politicizing economic and trade issues closely related is the United States on economic and trade issues shirking and absolve the responsibility, the search for scapegoats, will be self inflicted problems were attributed to China. An obvious example is the political operation of the US trade imbalance.
As noted above, the United States has a huge international balance of payments and the source of the trade deficit with China is mainly in the United States since the high consumption of low savings in the behavior and globalization background of China and the United States in the international industrial division of labor in different position. It is clear that the US, like Christopher Nicholas (D.Kristof Nicholas), is responsible for the problem of the United States of America, such as (who), "the distorted international capital flows, the world economy is not stable, the country is not China, but the United states." However, for politicians in the United States, it is not in line with their political interests to accept such an economic reality. In their view, must seek other means, find the reasons from the trade target body.
Since entering China in twenty-first Century, China is the main source of the trade deficit of the United States, China has become the largest for the crime. (Lampton David) pointed out that the United States politicians in the trade deficit on the issue of China's top two accusations: politicians are not economists, for them, the growing trade deficit with China has triggered a 'fair trade' and the loss of employment concerns." [22] in the interpretation of the politicians, resulting in enormous trade deficit against China the culprit is China's unfair trade practices, and an important manifestation of unfair trade is deliberately suppressed the RMB exchange rate. Therefore, it is not difficult to understand that the United States government repeatedly accused the low value of the renminbi has caused the international economic imbalances.
In fact, the United States put forward the allegations of unfair trade and job losses are not economic basis. For China's unfair trade accusations, Nicholas Radi pointed out that the U.S. trade deficit with China is mainly reflected in China's openness to foreign investment, rather than what is not fair trade behavior." "23 the same, Huff Bauer, et al. The American trade deficit with China led to the loss of American jobs, the allegations of a counter. "The trade deficit is not the main cause of the loss of (US) manufacturing jobs. 2000 to 2003 the main reason for the loss of manufacturing jobs is manufacturing downturn...... Improve the productivity of manufacturing industry. The political calculation of the trade deficit with the loss of jobs is not too exaggerated." 24.
Need to explain is why China as a scapegoat practice although economically defensible, but politicians was never bored with? The answer is that can bring political benefits, kill two birds with one stone. On the one hand by grafting in the trade imbalance, the blame on China, the United States government realize to justify their own responsibility. The United States of America's trade deficit and the manufacturing industry, such as the loss of industrial and other issues of packaging, all blamed on China, to help reduce the U.S. government's economic adjustment, the unemployed workers to carry out the relief and retraining responsibilities. On the other hand, once China is considered as the main reason for the US trade deficit, the United States trade protectionism waving a big stick reduces concerns, can be very aggressive, calling on China to revalue the yuan, open market and in the time of need initiated anti-dumping and countervailing trade remedy investigations.
Share responsibilities in addition to absolve itself of responsibility, the United States also actively encourage China in the United States encountered difficult times help us solve problems and share the responsibility. The most famous example of China to share the responsibility of the United States and China, the two countries in 2008, was a popular idea. [25] the idea by former US government officials, director of the Peterson Institute for International Economics Fred Bergsten (Fred Bergsten) first proposed, and historian Niall Ferguson, Sir Alex Ferguson, strategist Zbigniew Brzezinski and Kissinger echoed and respected. Burgess ten, the first editor in chief of the United States and the world economy, in 2005, the United States and the world economy, China and the United States and the world economy, the author, in 2008 and in the "foreign" magazine, a detailed explanation of his Chinese and American groups, the concept of "building a Sino US joint global governance process, so that China's role in a certain extent to replace the eu. During the same period, Ferguson also participated in the development of the concept of the "two groups" in China and the United States (), and created the "Sino American" (Chimerica) term used to describe the economic symbiosis between the United States and china. And, as when the United States encountered difficulties at home and abroad is an important means to alleviate [28] in 2008 in the first half of the financial crisis after the outbreak of the Sino US "two groups" idea has received more and more attention and praise, Brzezinski, Henry Kissinger, Zoellick and Justin Yifu Lin et al also began to participate in advocacy and from the previous level of economic expansion to a strategic level. 29.
The United States in 2008 before and after the financial crisis in the United States and China and the United States "two groups" is based on the idea of pragmatic principles, aimed at the rapid rise of China from the United States to take over more responsibility to help the United States to maintain the minimum price of the United States as the center of the world economy and political order. The intent of the United States in the United States not only in the articles of Burgess ten, Brzezinski and Kissinger et al. There is a clear explanation, but in 2009 the United States official policy of China, the argument has a clear performance. For example, in order to ensure that the Chinese capital will continue to flow with the financial crisis in the United States, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner in 2009 six months has visited China, acts as the US Treasury bond salesman role, in a sincere tone asked China to continue to buy U. S. Treasury bonds, and to China's leaders that China in the safety of American assets. 31.
The rapid development of China's economy has attracted the attention of the world, especially in developing countries, which have provided a very important way for developing countries to develop their own economy with the prescription of the western countries for many years. Therefore, the so-called "Beijing consensus" or the discussion of China's development model is in the ascendant in the world. However, the concern of developing countries on China's economic development has raised concerns in the United States.
In order to meet the challenges brought by the development of China, the United States has taken the strategy of two sides to start. On the one hand, the United States has spared no effort to maintain the legitimacy of the Washington consensus. Actually, the United States never lack of praise on the development model of the United States of America, from the end of the cold war at the beginning of Francis and Francis Fukuyama, Fukuyama declared that "the end of history" [32] to the 2002 national security strategy of the United States declared the United States represents "the success of one country only sustainable mode", [33] shows the model for its highly conceited. In addition, the United States also with the same self implementation of their own model. The 2005 report of the International Monetary Fund released a report on the economic development of Latin America in the United States and its leading international organization's arrogance and conceit. Report is the first to admit that the lacklustre performance of from the nineties of the last century began to accept the "Washington consensus" economic prescriptions in Latin America, the region economy development, but the report concluded and is not a neo liberal scheme has a problem, but the Latin American region accept the depth and breadth of the "Washington consensus" is not enough. [34] Thus, the United States is fully committed to maintaining the legitimacy of the model itself, even at the expense of distortion of the facts for the doctrine of the "Washington consensus" escort.
On the other hand, America through discourse on the Chinese derogatory development model to deal with the challenges. The first is accusing China in foreign trade is contrary to the spirit of free trade, do not follow the rules, implement the beggar thy neighbor, selfish "mercantilism" policy. In the eighties and nineties of the last century, once pushed for American policy toward Japan "revisionist school" godfather of chamers Johnson (Chalmers Johnson will then charges against Japan directly applied in China: "in a certain extent, trade with China is not a trade, but 'institutional friction' a performance... China's development strategy, a large number of Japanese and other Asian countries experience, one of the secrets of the rules of capitalism, the rules of the use of rules to achieve national wealth and power." (35) can be said, "mercantilism" labels are affixed to all areas of Chinese foreign economic policy. By the end of February 2012, a think-tank in Washington, DC, "information technology and innovation foundation, will release a entitled" enough: against China's innovation mercantilism "report, the report said China's implementation of mercantilism scale" unprecedented ", accused China to use exchange rate manipulation, subsidies, tariffs, mandatory technology transfer, export restrictions, standard setting and other policies etc. to companies in the industry -- especially advanced technology products and services -- obtain" absolute advantage ". 36.
With "mercantilist" charges related to another discourse discredit to China in developing countries particularly Africa's economic activities of "Neo colonialism" label. In early June 2011, Secretary of State Condoleezza Hilary visited the East African countries, and pointed out that China's cooperation with Africa did not follow the international standards, and warned African countries to guard against the new colonialism". (37) USA criticism of China Africa policy embodied in the period of a few years ago the Sultan crisis in darfur. America tried to seize the moral high ground in the international discourse, at the expense of derogatory China, China is portrayed as a petroleum interests in order to support the government of Sudan on Darfur performed "genocide" countries. 38.
In addition, the United States has spread China's economic development to the United States and the world's "threat", including the "employment threat" - China's cheap products are caused by local employment loss; health threat -- China's poor quality products to foreign users of health; "energy threat" -- China in order to ignite the country's economic engine will use the world's energy ".
The privilege of the system construction
As can be seen, the United States in its economic policy in China has not only used the import restrictions, export expansion and exchange rate, including economic weapons, but also used a large number of non economic means. From the perspective of the system, the United States this policy portfolio can be attributed to two points. First, the United States of America view the international economic relations, especially with other major powers of economic relations, mainly through the perspective of realism, the economic power of economic power to determine the role of the state, and in economic exchanges more concerned about the relative benefits (relativegains). Discusses material strength of a country's international status the decisive role of the new reality theory master Kenneth Waltz KennethWaltz: "the international status of a country usually varies according to the material resources of the growth and promotion. The country with the economic power of the big country has finally become a powerful nation, whether they want to or not." 41.
It is precisely because the United States policy makers believe that the economic relationship is the most important and basic part of the strength of the country, they believe that China with the rise of economic power will become the international system of power, so the rise of China as a threat to the economic status of the United states. Out of this understanding, the United States will naturally use a variety of means to deal with this threat, delay the rise of china.
Second, the United States in the current international relations system in the core position of the United States not only assume the responsibility to build and maintain the existing system, but also to the identity of the system to build the identity of the other countries, especially the rising powers to suppress, shirk responsibility and the privilege of discourse. Robert Gilpin (Gilpin Robert) pointed out that "the international system in the construction of major powers in the international economic activities of the purpose and the main rules play a leading role". As a superpower after World War II, the United States led the establishment of a global economic system, which is the center of the world, and the maintenance and expansion of the system has become an important target of the United States foreign economic policy.
Of course, when the United States of America to the identity of the system to plan its world economic system, it is based on their own interests and preferences, to ensure that the system is established after the United States can continue to obtain benefits from the system, enjoy the system dividends. In other words, when the system is established, the United States has become a system of privilege to enjoy. 43 the United States in the current international economic system to enjoy the privilege of an important manifestation of the dollar in the international reserve currency status of the global. The only thing to look at is that the United States is currently the only country that can pay all its imports in its own currency ". Susan Strange (SusanStrange) had a more thorough exposition of the privileges of the United States: "for most countries, the international balance of payments surplus or deficit shows the strength of its international financial position. For the United States, the situation is just the opposite. Said really, a quarter of a century, American economy has maintained the international balance of payments deficit did not suffer any damage. This reveals not the weak position, but strong U.S. power in the system. The United States can issue the dollar without restraint, and other countries have no choice but to accept the dollar, unless they are willing to bear the cost of hard to accept." 45.
When China and other countries join the international organization, which is built and dominated by the United States, the United States can use its system privileges to set the conditions for joining the organization. The reason why the United States is able to put forward such harsh terms in China's entry into the WTO and to insist on not compromise is the embodiment of the privilege of the system. And when China joined the system, the United States can continue to use the system construction of status of Chinese performance commenting, asking them to abide by the rules of the system. Consistent with this is that President Obama nearly two years in a number of occasions of speech hit the so-called "rules" brand, has repeatedly asked "China must abide by the rules", in order to "standardize" the development of China. To this end, the Obama administration has also established a cross sectoral trade law enforcement agencies in February 2012, aimed at China and other countries to conduct an investigation and enforcement of the so-called unfair trade practices, to ensure that the relevant countries to comply with international trade rules.
Similarly, the United States has used the system privileges to trade imbalances and other issues of political operation, the responsibility of China and other countries. And when the development mode of China constitute a challenge to the United States, the United States and the use of the system gives the discourse hegemony of Chinese mode of detraction and slander.
Conclusion
To sum up, in the face of the rapid growth of China's economy, the United States through the perspective of realism examine the economic and trade relations with China and on the relative gains, on China's economic rise holds strong wariness. Performance in the economic and trade relations with China, the United States on the export of Chinese products and China in investment in the United States everywhere fortification and spare no effort to pry the Chinese market, try to make the balance of interests of both sides to its tilt. At the same time, the United States in the current international system of the identity of the construction, the full use of the system to give the privilege and strong discourse, the behavior of China's "standard". American seems to system construction and the total helmsman itself, manipulating trade imbalances, to shift the responsibility. And when the international system of the United States and its dominant encounter difficulties and seize the opportunity to cozying up to China, calls for China to take on more responsibility, more sacrifice. China should have a clear understanding and full preparation for the combination of these policies in the US economic and trade policies. Especially with the further development of China's economy and the further strengthening of the comprehensive national strength, the use of various means in the economic and trade policies of the United States will show a trend of more frequent and more severe. Of course, in addition to the economic and trade pressure on the United States to prepare, more important is China's need to further enhance the strength, enhance the ability to shape the current international system and develop rules, and strive to improve their international discourse ability, in order to gain more initiative in the U.S. economic and trade relations.