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硕士学位论文 毛泽东诗词中典故的英译研究

时间:2021-10-30 来源:未知 编辑:梦想论文 阅读:
中文摘要
 
毛泽东是中国历史上著名的政治家,军事家,思想家,作家和诗人。他在领 导中国人民进行革命斗争的同时创作了大量的作品,其中,他的诗词被视为当代 中国文学的艺术瑰宝和世界文化的一颗璀燦明珠。毛泽东善于运用典故,引典入 文,入诗是毛泽东语言最突出的艺术特色。典故中凝练着、沉淀着大量反映中华 民族人文精神、历史文化的内容。对典故及其翻译的研究不仅有利于原作内涵和 风格的传达而且有利于传播中国的古典历史和文化。对毛泽东诗词中典故英译的 研究是毛泽东诗词翻译研究的重要组成部分,对中国古典诗词的翻译也有一定的 借鉴意义,这也是本研究的意义所在。
 
毛泽东诗词在世界范围内广为流传,到目前为止,诗词已被国内外的译者译 成多种语言,多个版本,其中英文版本不下十几种。本文首先简要介绍了毛诗及 其典故,对典故进行界定,把毛诗典故分为三类:神话、传说、寓言故事类;历 史及文学人物类;有来历出处的词语,句子类。其次,从上述典故里选取典型的, 具有代表性的三类典故的例子,列表对比分析典故的翻译,发现虽然这些英文版 本的译者及其国别、出版的年代不同,但他们的对典故的处理方式有很大的共性。 由于中西语言文化的差异,以及诗歌特殊形式的限制,译者往往难以传述典故的 全部内容。译者在充分理解把握典故含义的基础上,应尽量在译文里体现原文特 有的文化元素。同时,译者在处理不同类型的典故时也应该有所差异。结合异化 和归化理论,从而得出毛诗典故翻译的普遍方法:①处理神话传说、寓言故事类 典故时,多数译者采取了直译加注的方法。此类典故暗含的文化内涵丰富,宜采 用直译加注的方法翻译,更好地传达原诗的意境;②处理人物类典故时,大部分 译本采取直译加注的方法;③处理有来历出处的词语时,上述译本绝大部分采取 了直译的方法。上述方法对中国古典诗词中典故的翻译有一定借鉴意义。
 
关键词:毛泽东诗词; 典故翻译; 归化异化
 
ABSTRACT

Mao Zedong is a world-famous writer as well as a statesman, strategist and thinker in Chinese history. He created many literary and political works when he was leading Chinese people to build a new China. His poems have been regarded as an artistic treasure of Ghinese modem literature as well as a bright pearl of world culture. Apt application of allusions to poems and articles is one of the most prominent artistic characteristics of Mao5s language. Research on English translation of allusions is an essential part of English translations of Mao^ poems and Chinese classical poems, and it is the significance of the present study.
 
Mao’s poems are read worldwide. So far they have been translated into many languages by different translators both inland and abroad, and there are more than a dozen of English versions. In this thesis, the author first briefly introduces Mao5s poems and the allusions in the poems, and then demarcates the definition of allusions and categorizes them into three types: myths, legends and fables; historical and literary figures; quotations. Then the author chooses some typical and representative allusions, compares and analyzes the nine English versions of them. It is found that although translators and their nationalities and the time of publication differ, their translation methods of allusions have a lot in common. However,differences between eastern and western languages and cultures and limitations of special poetic form lead to difficulties of translation that happen to translators when they translate allusions. Translation methods vary with allusions. In light of the foreignization and domestication theory, the methods of translation of allusions in Mao’s poems are summarized as ①When myths, legends and ancient stories are translated, most translators adopt literal translation with notes. This type of allusion contains rich cultural connotations, so it is better to adopt
 
literal translation with notes to fully transmit the artistic conception of original meanings; (2) When literary and historical figures are rendered, most translators take precedence of literal translation with notes; (D When quotations (words, idioms and lines)are dealt with, most translators employ literal translation. However, the advantages of the free translation cannot be ignored. When some heavily-culturally-loaded items can^ be translated literally and idiomatically, it is advisable to render them freely. These methods are also illuminative to the translation of allusions in other Chinese classical poems.
Key words: Mao ZedongJs poems, allusion, translation, domestication, foreignization
 
LISTS OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table Group 1: Myths, Legends and Fables 28
Table Group 2: Historical and Literaty Figures r ....31
Table Group 3: Quotations 33
Table 4: Results 45
 
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学位论文作者签名:
 
“站年《月/&曰
 
指导教师签名:
 
年 <月7日
 
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person or material which
has to substantial extent been accepted for the award of any other degree of diploma at any university of other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement had been made in the text.
 
Name:
 
Date:
 
 
兹呈交的学位论文,是本人在导师指导下独立完成的研究 成果,在论文写作过程中参考的其他个人或集体的研究成果均 在文中以明确方式标明,本人依法享有和承担由此论文而产生 的权利和责任。
 
声明人(签名): 
 
你年/月/‘曰
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
 
This thesis is developed from my three years of study in School of Foreign Languages,Jiangsu University. Many people have lent me a helping hand in giving so much guidance, support and criticism from various aspects. I would like to acknowledge with heartfelt thanks.
First and foremost, I am greatly indebted to my supervisor, Associate Prof. LI Chongyue whose encouragement and insightful suggestions contribute in a constructive way in the process of my thesis-composing. Without his devotion, this project would never have been completed in its present form. Moreover, he has given me a good few insightful instructions and crucial suggestions on academic learning, requested me to research and work with an honest and strict attitude.
I am also deeply grateful to those teachers who have benefited me so much during the three years of study here. My sincere thanks especially go to Professor Liu Aizhen, Associate Professors Zhang Lin, Ren Xiaofei, Sun Zhixiang, Chen Weiping and Zhou Weijing who introduced ms intercultural communication, translation studies, modem translation theories, cultural study, comparative linguistics and applied linguistics and so on. Besides, thanks also should go to Ms. Zhao Weihong, the secretary of the postgraduate program, who is always patient to help me to deal with problems in study.
In addition, I would like to express my particular appreciation to my former teachers, Mr. Li Peicang, Prof. Meng Fansheng and Ms. Ii Yemeng of Unyi Normal University for their encouragement, help and friendship. They lead me into a colorful academic life, encourage me to head forward and give me many useful suggestions whenever I come across some problems during the thesis-composing process.

 
Chapter One
INTRODUCTION
 
<eWhat makes him formidable is that he is not just a Party Boss, but by millions of Chinese is quite genuinely regarded as a teacher, statesman, strategist, philosopher, poet laureate, national hero, head of the family, and the greatest liberator in history.w(Dong 178) This is a judgment made by Edgar Snow in Red Star over China. This shows how Mao Zedong impresses the Chinese people and the world.
As is said by Snow, Mao Zedong is often mentioned as a statesman until the last breath of his life. He is at the same time an eloquent speaker, an intelligent strategist and an eminent thinker. Mao Zedong, as a political giant in Chinese history, is an accomplished writer as well. His literary talent is obviously witnessed by the various literary productions originated from his creative mind. His works covers a very significant period of history. He is one of the most prestigious writers and poets during the 20th century. Paul Engle, an American translator, said that <4It is proper, that the ruler of the country with the most people in the world should sell more copies of his book than any other poet in history. It is probably trae that the fifty-seven million copies said to have been sold of the poems of Mao Zedong may well equal the number of all volumes of poetry by all poets writing in English from the beginning of time.”
Willis Bamstone, a Professor of Comparative Literature, considers Mao Zedong to be “an original master,one of China’s most important poets”(He 8). If his works can be considered as a grand treasure house, his poetry will probably be the most splendid and shining gemstone in it. These poems are largely the quintessence of his works,and are considered widespread,far-reaching ones in modem literary history as
 
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well. Mao Zedong^ poems play an important role in the history of Chinese literature. It artistically reflects the revolution and the socialist construction in modem China. It is one of the most valuable spiritual and artistic treasures of China. As far as the literary value of Man’s poems is concerned,Lu Ge holds that his poems are not only unparalleled among the classical poems composed by modem poets, but also are dazzlingly brilliant compared with classical poems of the Tang and Song dynasties (Guo). His poetry serves as not only a window into this great man^ personality, intelligence and talent, but also a mirror from which is reflected Chinese peopled revolutionary, struggling experience for a new life style and the initial construction and developmental stage after the establishment of a new China. In a word,Mao Zedong poems are no doubt a dazzling pearl in Chinese literature.
Abundant use of allusions is one of the most spectacular characteristics of Mao?spoems. Allusion is one of the most important figures of speech that Mao used in his
poems, which embodies Mao's literary attainments and his accurate understanding and vivid employment of classical poetic arts. Mao subtly collects ancient stories,
characters (or words) and lines, etc to shape a new artistic style of his own. He uses allusion creatively, and his wording and phrasing helps create particular artistic
conception. For example,the line “天若有情天亦老”(Were Nature sentienVshe too would pass from youth to age.) in the poem The People's Liberation Army Captures
is quoted from “衰兰送客咸阳道,天若有情天亦老”(And withered orchids by the Xianyang Road/ See the travel on his way/ Ah, if Heaven had a feeling heart/ It
too must grow old)(Yang & Yang,2003: 249-250) of Li He’s poem,金铜仙人辞汉歌(Song 〇/汸e fironze In Li’s poem,Li means that after the immortals left,it
was cold and desolate. If the nature were sentient, she too would pass from youth to age. The poem was full of sadness and desolation. However,in Mao’s poem,“天若有
情天亦老’’ is given brand-new meanings. In the poem to Mr. Kizf,“一唱雄鸡天下白 ”(Now the cock has crowed and all under heaven is bright.) shows 汪 broad
artistic conception and means that the morning for new China is coming soon, and its meaning differs greatly from the original. Use of allusions helps express a writer^
thoughts and feelings; it also reflects what Liu Xie says, ''quote ancient expressions to


2
 
help transmit present meanings” in his bookj ^ 加 Carvi/ig 〇/ 加
Dragon; Allusion also gives hints for what the author says in a poem and enlightens readers; it predigests and beautifies characters and lines. In a word, allusion is one of extremely important techniques used in Chinese classical poems and Mao5s poems (Dai; Jiang &Zhan; Liu; Sun; Tang; Hu; Xu).
Mao Zedong's poems are widely read in China, at the same time, his poems are widely appreciated, studied and translated by people in foreign countries. Mao^ poems have a wide range of readers at home and abroad. Since the 1940s,Mao’s poems have been translated into quite a number of foreign languages such as Fnglish, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Greek, Russian, Hungarian, Romanian, Czechoslovak, Japanese, Korean, Metnamese, and Thai language with a considerable circulation and unprecedented popularity. The earliest English version in China was Poems of Mao Zedong, comprising 18 poems and published in Chinese Literature, \fel. 3,1958. Rendered according to the 18 poems carried in Poetry edited by Zang Kejia, this English version heralded a surge of translation of Mao’s poems in the forthcoming years. Closely following this was Nineteen Mao Zedong Poems with Notes by Chou Chen-fu and an Appreciation by Zang Kejia published by Foreign Languages Press in 1958(Zhang). After these English translations are published, a dozen of English translations of Mao’s poems are published. Mao Zedong owes the popularity of his poems to the magnetism of the poems themselves, as well as to the numerous spectacular translations. So far as the English versions are concerned, there are more than a dozen in number and many foreign and Chinese translators involve in the translations of Mao Zedong’s poems.
A glimpse of Mao Zedong 5s poems will reveal the frequency with which allusions are quoted. Allusions play an indispensable and very important role in Maoss poems, which implies that appropriate handling of the allusions is essential to the successful translation of MaoJs poems. The translation of allusions involves a problem, i.e., how to deal with the cultural elements in the translations in an age of frequent cultural exchanges. Translating allusions in Mao’s poems in a proper way helps
transmit the historical and literary connotations and verves in the original works.
 
3
 
The study of the translation of the allusions is part of the research of translation of Mao?s poems. The findings of the study also contribute to the translation of Chinese classical poems, especially the allusions quoted in these poems. Moreover, since a large number of allusions are quoted in Mao^ poems, the study is practically meaningful to the study of Chinese classical literature and helpful to the transmission of Chinese culture.
 
4
 
Chapter Two
LITERATURE REVIEW
 
2.1 Definition of Allusion
There are many definitions for allusions. According to the electronic American Heritage Dictionary (Evenson), an allusion is usually used as an implicit reference,
perhaps to another work of literature or art,to a person or event. An allusion may enrich the work by association and give it depth. An allusion can also be understood
as a figure of speech that tends to remind the reader of historical stories so as to understand what the author wants to express at the time. An allusion is defined to be a
passing or casual reference, an incidental mention of something, either directly or by implication and a metaphor parable in The Random House Compact Unabridged
Dictionary (Special Second Edition) (Random House 58). In Oxford Concise Companion to the English Language, allusion is an indirect reference. This term
formerly included metaphors, parables, and puns, but now generally means implicit use of someone else’s words. Whereas quotations usually come with acknowledged
sources, allusions are indirect, even crytic, sometimes dropped in passing, with little thought, sometimes used with care,so that a speaker or writer can share an
understanding with certain listeners or readers. Allusions often adapt the original to new ends, the audience making or failing to make the connections (T. McAuthur&R.
McAuthur 22). In his thesis English Translations of Allusions in Tang Poetry^ li Linbo defines Chinese allusions as 4<implied or indirect references composed of seven
Chinese characters, originated from historical events, folk tales, classics, myth and
 
5
 
other cultural sources, used for their original meanings which are supposed to be known to the intended reader, and usually to be found in literary works/*
According to a dictionary called The Grand Dictionary of Chinese Language (Phonetically-ordered Version) printed by Shanghai Dictionary Press, an allusion refers to:
1) A principle and rule that everyone should follow in ancient times, and
2) An ancient story quoted in classical poems and literary works and a word that have origins and sources.
The definition given in The Grand Dictionary of Chinese Language covers more aspects and is more comprehensive than the other definitions. Therefore, this study takes it as the working definition of an allusioa Ancient stories include myths, legends and fables, and also ancient figures; words that have acknowledged origins and sources include Chinese characters, idioms and lines, which can be summarized as quotations. Principles and rules are ranked into the category of ancient stories. Ancient figures include historical and literary figures. As a result, allusions include myths, legends, fables, historical and literary figures, and quotations and so on. Therefore, this thesis classifies the allusions quoted in MaoJs poems as three sub-types: myths, legends and fables, historical and literary figures, and quotations. And if one allusion falls into two sub-types, then it is categorized into the first subtype. For example, “吴刚’’and “嫦娥” are figures from legends. They fall into two subtypes: legend and figures; however, they are names for figures in nature and then, they are legendary figures. Therefore, in this thesis, they are first categorized into the second subtype.
2.2 Study of Allusions in Mao’s Poems
Most people have a common understanding and knowledge about Mao Zedong
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poems and the quoted allusions. The quotations of allusions give Chinese classical poems a brand-new vigor and life. The use of allusions is only one of the most important artistic techniques which are adopted in MaoJs poems and it shows the grace and cultural quality of a great statesman.
The quoting of famous lines, idioms and allusions of former writers in Mao Zedong’s poems is felicitous, which makes the finishing point. Moreover, he endows those allusions with a brand-new meaning and traditional quintessence. Much attention has been paid to Mao’s poems. Researchers have published not a few books or papers on MaoJs poems, which study the poems from such perspectives as background of writing, image, form, ideological content, figure of speech, language use, connotation, allusions and so on.
After the publication of Mao Zedong 5s poems, many scholars and writers took great interests in allusions and set about studying them. There have appeared books on the allusions in Mao5s poems, such zs Allusions in Mao Zedong^ Works (Y.X. Tao), Dictionary of Allusions and Idioms in Mao Zedong's Works (J.B. Ma and X.H. He) and Explanations of Allusions and Idioms in Poems of Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, Zhu De, Dong Biwu and Chen Yi published by the compiling office of Chinese Idiom Dictionary ofLiaocheng College of Shandong Normal University. These books give detailed explanations to the origins and meanings of allusions quoted in Mao^ poems, analyze the idiographic meanings Mao expresses, and then educe the narrations and elucidations of a certain historical facts or some aspects in his works.
.Not a few papers on the usage of the allusions have been published in periodicals, such as On the Quotational Art of Mao Zedong^ Poetry (Tang), On the Language Art of Mao Zedong's Poem (Liu), On Allusion usage in Mao Zedongfs Poems (Dai). Xu Zhulin analyzes different origins of the allusions; categorize their origins into four types: Tang poems; myths and legends; folk tales and literary quotations. Sun Xunhua discusses how to keep and develop this literary tradition. In his creations, he uses allusions in different perspectives and ways to write sentences and transmit his meanings. This paper discusses the usage of allusions in the forms of direct usage, transformation, borrowing and antiphrasis. Moreover, Jiang Liyu, Tao Weinan, and
 
some others have contributed a lot to the study of the allusions.
2.3 Study of Allusion Translation
Translation of allusions has always been one of the key issues in translation studies, particularly in literary translation. They have caused insurmountable problems in intercultural translation, because they not only bring about linguistic problems, but most importantly, problems largely embodied on the cultural level. It has been generally acknowledged that translation concerns not only the transfer between two languages, but also cultural transmission in a broad sense.
Allusion translation of Chinese classical poems is discussed or touched on occasionally, such as the theses A Contrastive Study of English and Chinese Allusions and Their Translation (Y.L. Xu), English Translation of Allusions in Tang Poetry (L.B. Li), and A Study of the Conveyance of Pragmatic Implication in C-E/E-C Translation of Allusions From the Perspective of Culture(S.H. Huang) devote much space to the usage and translations of allusions in great details. In A Contrastive Study of English and Chinese Allusions and Their Translation, the author puts forth that conveyance of pragmatic implicature should embrace the metaphorical meanings of the allusions as well as its unique cultural flavor. A well-balanced manipulation of implicature and explicature in translating pragmatic implicature can be deemed as an optimal strategy of translations of allusions. Domestication should gradually give way to foreignization. Translating allusions in a foreignizing vein is advantageous to transmit brilliant Chinese culture to the world.
In English Translation of Allusions in Tang Poetry, the author argues that in translating allusions in Tang poems, the target language-oriented approach should take precedence over the source language-oriented one through the comparison between general translation and allusion translation. Translators should fully bridge the cultural and linguistic gap between target language and source language and the acceptance of the target language readers in translating cultural tenns like allusions, so as to make

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his translation acceptable and easy to spread.
In A Study of the Conveyance of Pragmatic Implication in C-E/E-C Translation of Allusions from the Perspective of Culture^ the author explores the various potential strategies for conveying pragmatic implicatures or cultural connotations of cultural-specific allusions. He introduces two important concepts in pragmatic translation, namely, implicature and explicature,suggests a well manipulation of these two,and provides a pathway for the conveyance of the cultural connotation or pragmatic implicature of allusions*
Gu Zhengyang,a professor of Shanghai University has done 这 relatively comprehensive study of the translation of allusions in Chinese classical poems, and puts forth some methods of allusion translation, which is a great help to this study. He suggests several ways in translating allusions in ancient Chinese poems: translate the name of a hero/in; translate the occupation or position of a hero/in; translate one of the plots; translate the main content; translate the ending and the implied meaning.
Language and Culture (Deng and Liu) involves basic and most important cultural factors,including idioms,proverbs and sayings,metaphor and association, colorful language, allusions, euphemisms and taboos etc when people are using English. In this book, Prof. Deng gives the origins, connotations and meanings of some English and Chinese allusions. Through comparison of Chinese culture and western culture, the author discusses in details important cultural factors involved in English and argues with a lot of examples that one has to master the rules of English usage related to these factors, and then s/he can use correct and proper words.
As far as the author knows, there is rare comprehensive and systemic research on
the translations of allusions in Mao's poems. Researches on English translations of
Mao’s poems mainly focus on some partial and microcosmic parts. Some theses for
Master's Degree take comparative studies of English translations of Mao Zedong's
poems as topics. For example, Xu Yang, a postgraduate of Liaoning Noraial
University, wrote his thesis A Comparative Study of the English Translations of Mao
Zedong’s Poetry. In this thesis, an allusion is mentioned in a section as a
cultural-bounded factor to assume an established literary tradition or impart common

9
 
knowledge. The author gives many examples and detailed explanations and analyses of allusions quoted in Mao’s poems.
Hu Jing^ thesis, A Comparative Study of the English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems, discusses the cultural elements in two versions, the official version by Foreign Languages Press and Xu Yuanchong's version. She puts forth that was far as allusions are concerned, it is better to preserve the original images with care and rule out other unrelated associations. As for their particular components, figures, half transliteration (with identities of places and figures supplemented) and literal translation are the reliable means; mere transliteration should be avoided. Since there is certain cultural or historical background behind an allusion, a translator is supposed to be more culturd conscious and supplement notes to make it comprehensive and pass on Chinese culture.”
2.4 Study of English Translations of Mao Zedong Poems
After Edgar Snow quoted one of Mao^ poems, Long March, in his English book Red Star over China, Mao^ poems were introduced to the outside. The Chinese Literature (English version) in 1958 published the English translation of Nineteen Poems of Mao Zedong Poems. At the beginning of 1964, an official translating group for Mao’s poems was set up,and in 1976, the translation of Mao’s poems was finished and published by Foreign languages Press.
Studies of English translations of Mao^ poems mainly focus on some partial and microcosmic parts. There are many famous scholars, both inland and abroad, who have contributed a lot to the translation studies of Mao*s poems, such as Prof. Zhao Zhentao, Prof. Xu Yuanchong, Prof. Zhang Chunhou, Prof. Jerome Chen and Prof. Gu Zhengkun, etc have expressed their opinions in the forewords or appendix of their own translations. And other theses about English translations of Mao5s poems are also
 
anecdotal and unsystematic. For cxamp\c9Cultural Context and English Translation of Chinese Poems— A Review of Gu Zhengkun's English Version of Mao Zedong's Poems (S.D. Zheng) in Journal of Hainan Normal College, A Review of the English Translation of Some Poems by Mao Zedong (P.Y. Zhang and H. Wang) in Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University9 Some Reflections on Zhao Zhentao's Second-Edition English Version of Mao Zedong's Poems (T.M. Wang) in Modern Foreign Languagesy On the Figurative Beauty ofXun Yuanchong's English Version of Mao Zedong Poems (D,Q. Hu) in Chinese Translators' Journal, On the English Tramlathn of Mao Zedong’s Poems Qhx),Probe into the English Translation
of Mao Zedong's Poems{BXi. Zhang), etc.
In recent years, many theses which focus on English translation of Mao Zedong poems appear, such as A Comparative Study of the English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poetry (Y. Xu), A Comparative Study of the English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems (J. Hu), A Comparative Study of the English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems (Y.Q. Guo), A Comparative Study of the English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems (Z.Z. Zhang), etc. However, the shortcomings of these papers are obvious: on one side, only a few English translations are involved in these papers, sometimes only three or four versions; on the other side, remarks are too microcosmic and petty with no new connotations.
Although more and more new English versions of Mao^ poems are appearing, studies on the translations are intermittent and unsystematic. It can be concluded that the study of English translations of Mao Zedong poems develops much more slowly than the study of Mao Zedong poems. Some aspects of the translation of the poems are to be focused on and studied comprehensively, such as translation of images, numerals, metaphors and allusions. In this thesis, the author focuses on the English translation of allusions in the poems in light of the foreignization and domestication theories.

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Chapter Three
ALLUSIONS IN MA09S POEMS
 
MIn most, if not all, languages, people embellish their speech or writing with references to characters or events from their history, legends, literature, religions, etc. Such references~allusions—make the language richer, but also make communication
much more vivid and often easier M (Deng and Liu 71) .Mao is adept in the use of
allusions. He can not only express the original meanings of some allusions, but widen or shift the original meanings. As Zhao Puchu, an expert in Chinese classical poems, says, ^Chairman Mao is the best at allusion use. He usually properly uses, reversely uses, expands or extends the original meaning of allusions. These usages make the original meaning of an allusion change to some extent and then serve the subject.
Consequently, Mao^ poems are full of all kinds of allusions, which include myths, legends, fables, historical and literary figures, and quotations. Thus it can be seen that all the above three subtypes contain many cultural factors which reflect China^ historical and literary heritage. It can be said in a certain sense that allusions are a carrier of a nation’s culture, and sometimes it is the essence or the high pitch of a poem. It is a way to use simple signs to transmit sophisticated infonnation. The difficulty of translating allusions lies in that they are probably not known to all the readers from another culture. In other words, the signified meaning of allusions is the same as each other, but the pragmatic meaning of one allusion in one culture does not exist in the other culture.
As is mentioned above, allxisions are classified as three sub-types: myths, legends and fables; historical and literary figures; quotations. In the following sections, each type will be discussed in detail with comparison of examples from Mao5s poems.

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(All the explanations of allusions quoted come from Gong Mu5s appreciation of Mao^ poems, and all the translations of the titles, brands and allusions quoted adopt the ones in the official version.)
3.1 Myths, Legends and Fables
A myth is a story that originated in ancient times, especially one which deals with ideas or beliefs about the early history of a race, or giving explanations of natural events,such as seasons; a legend is a story that is handed down from the past, especially one that may not be true. In Mao Zedong^ poems, there are so many myths and legends that we can see the wisdom of the ancient people and Mao*s mastery of the history or the ancient literary works.
For example, in the poem Against the First aEncirclementn Campaign —to the tone o/Yii “不周山” in the lines “同心干,不周山下红旗乱’’(To fight as one
man/under the riot of red flags round the foot of Buzhou!) is quoted as an allusion and it implies the story of Gonggong butting against Mount Buzhou: uOn Astronomy>, in Huai Nan Zi or Writings of Prince Huainan says:w In ancient times Gonggong and Zhuanxu fought each other for the throne. In a fit of rage Gonggong butted against Mount Buzhou, breaking the pillars of heaven and snapping the ties of the earth. Then the sky shifted towards the northwest, tilting the sun, moon and stars; the earth sank in the southeast so that dust and water gathered there.,>
There are different versions of the legend. Chairman Mao prefers the version in Huai Nan Zi, which presents Gonggong as a victorious hero. Did Gonggong perish in his attempt? Huai Nan Zi is silent on this question. We may take that he did not, but came out victorious (Gong 66-67). He adopts this allusion to imply that the Red Army might survive the first encirclement campaign.
The line “观鱼胜过富春江’’(For watching fish they are better than Fuchun River) in the poem Reply to Mr. Liu Yazi —■a lii shi, Fuchun River is another name of
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Qiantang River, flowing through the middle of Zhejiang Province. The line alludes to Yan Guang, a statesman in the Eastern Han Dynasty, who once fished with a hook and line on the bank of the Qiantang River (Gong 149).
The lines “金猴奋起千钧棒,玉宇澄清万里埃”(The Golden Monkey wrathfully swung his massive cudgel and the jade-like finnament was cleared of dust.) in the poem Reply to Comrade Guo Moruo —a lii shi implies the story The Golden Monkey Subdues the White Bone Demon Three Times which is based on Chapter 31 of to 汍e Wfesf by Wu Cheng’en,a noted novelist and scholar in the Ming Dynasty. According to WuJs story, an evil demon is bom of a heap of white bones which has been absorbing menJs spiritual essence. Gradually it has taken the shape of a human being. To eat Tangseng,the monk from the Tang Empire, the demon assumes different human fonns three times, Sun Dasheng, a disciple of Tangseng, sees through the tricks of the evil demon. Being unable to tell a demon from human beings,the monk reprimands Sun Dasheng for killing the human-being-like demon, thus he drives the monkey away. Later on, Dasheng is witty enough to destroy the demon. (Gong 215) It is said that the impression of Sun Dasheng gives a vivid and lifelike portrayal of the Communist Party members. This allusion suggests the brave and persistent struggle of the Marxists and their historical achievements.
The lines “九嶷山上白云飞,帝子乘风下翠微。斑竹一枝千滴泪,红霞万朵 百重衣”(White clouds are sailing above Mount Jiuyi; Riding the wind, the Princesses descend the green hills. Once they speckled the bamboos with their profuse tears, now they are robed in rose-red clouds.) in the poem Reply to a Friend —a lii shi tells us a love story between Shun and daughters of Yao---E Huang and Nii Ying (Yao is a saintly sire of ancient times. When he was old, he chose Shun to take the throne and married his daughters~E Huang and Nu Ying to him. E Huang and Nu Ying are two cx>ncubines of Shun, who is the successor of Yao and also is a saintly sire of ancient times) (Gong 201-202). “帝子” refers to the two concubines of Shun. It is said that at the death of Shun, the two concubines wept so sadly that their tears speckled the bamboo-shoots.
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The line “飞起玉龙三百万”(Your three million white jade dragons in flight) in the poem Kunlun —to the tune ofNian Nu Jiao is quoted from an ancient poem. An ancient poet said, MAfter three million jade-white dragons fight, the air fills with their tattered scales in flight.”(战退玉龙三百万,败鳞残甲满天飞)(Gong 111) This line describes the flying snow which formed snow-covered mountains. When one climbs to the top of the Minshan Mountains in summer, one looks out on a host of mountains, all white, undulating as in a dance. Among the local people a legend was current to the effect that all these mountains were afire till the Monkey King borrowed a palm-leaf fan and quenched the flames, so that the mountains turned white.
So many myths and legends and fables exist in Mao5s poems that not all of them can be listed here; the above stories quoted show the extensive knowledge and profound scholarship of Mao Zedong.
3.2 Historical and Literary Figures
In Mao5s poems, there are many lines quoted historical events. In Against the Second “Encirclement” Campaign —to 执e tone 〇/y« Jia _Ac>,there are lines “枪林 逼,飞将军自重霄入”(A forest of rifles presses, as the Flying General descends from the skies.),“飞将军” here refers to the patriot general who bravely counterattacked the Huns during the Han Dynasty and made great contributions. According to Records of the Historian, Guang lived in the Youbeiping, the Huns heard of his deeds, and called him “flying general of the Han Dynasty” (Gong 72). Here in Mao’s poems it refers to the brave and battle wise Red Army soldiers.
The lines “陶令不知何处去,桃花源里可耕田Who knows whither Prefect Tao Yuanming is gone, now that he can till fields in the Land of Peach Blossoms?)in the poem Ascent of Lushan—a lii shi contains a story that is created by a pastoral poet called Tao Qian( also Tao Yuanming), namely,“陶令' Tao Yuanming wrote ‘TTie Peach Blossom Visionary Lawtf^D.Y. Sun 69), in which, Tao describes a
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paradise-like place where people enjoy equality and freedom, all work and live in peace and happiness. The place bears much resemblance to Thomas More5s Utopia. Mao*s intention of employing the allusion from the story has been unclear for a host annotators and scholars. Many believe Mao^ tone seems to suggest a mild note of criticizing Tao’s utopia. (Gong 192-193)
The quotation of historical and mythical figures is a common means to express his or her emotions and ideas effectively. In Snow —to the tune of Qin Yuan Chun, the historical figures “秦皇汉武”(Qin Shihuang and Han Wudi),“唐宗宋祖’’(Tang Taizong and Song Taizu) and “成吉思汗’’(Genghis Khan) appear to compare with the poet and his contemporaries to show their ambition. (Gong 126)
In Reply to Li Shuyi —to 执e ftme o/XWelian names “吴刚”(Wu Kang)and
“嫦娥”(moon goddess) are all mythical figures in literature. Wu Gang (Gong 168) is a legendary figure who committed a serious mistake in search for immortality and was therefore condemned to the hard job of cutting a tall sweet osmanthus tree on the moon every day. Legend has it that Change (169), wife of Houyi (Houyi is a legendary hero. It is said that there were ten suns in the sky in ancient times and trees and plants were grilled to death, thus people could not survive this disaster. Houyi was invited to shoot down the suns. Houyi shot down seven suns and one sun was left to provide sunshine for everyone.), having drunk some elixir by stealth, flew to the moon, where she became a goddess and had lived a lonely life since then.
Two figures quoted in Farewell to the God of Plague —two lii shi poems are “华 佗”(Hua Tuo)and “舜亮’’(Yao and Shun). They are mentioned but are only used metonymically. “华佗” is a brilliant physician in ancient China, and here it serves as a foil to the rampant little worm (Gong 176). “舜壳” are legendary monarchs in ancient China who are believed to be saint and wise leaders of the people, which are placed here side by side with general people to show they have the same characteristic (178).
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3.3 Quotations
The idiom ‘‘趋然不动 ’’(Steadfastly we stand our ground) in the poem Jinggangshan—to the tune of Xi Jiang Yue, is used to describe the steady and the brave spirit of the Red Army. It is quoted from Huai Nan Zi and also appears as “鬼然 不动”<Gong 27).
“众志成城’’(Our wills unite like a fortress) (27-28) means that if millions of people can be of one mind, the spirit will be never defeated like a strong fortress. It is first used in Guo Yu to describe the strength of the popular will.
“飒爽英姿’’(Bright and brave they look) appears for the first time in the poem 丹青引赠曹将军霸 written by Du Fu,a Tang Dynasty poet, and is used a lot to describe the mighty and heroic attitude of people (Gong 198). It is used to describe the active and brave militia women here.
The lines “蚂蚁缘槐夸大国,妣輕撼树谈何易’’(Ants on the locust tree assume of great-nation swagger and mayflies lightly plot to topple the giant tree.) contains two Chinese set phrases “蚂蚁缘槐” and “妣輕撼树”,which both originate from ancient stories. The first one is the transformed use of the idiom “南柯一梦”(a fond dream) and it means a dream,and the second is quoted from the poem 调张籍 of Han Yu, a Tang poet. Both can be used to describe the overration of one’s own abilities (Gong 238-239).
Differences caused by transformation in characters or form bring the whole poem to change accordingly. For instance,“才饮长沙水,又食武昌鱼”(I have just drunk the waters of Changsha and come to eat the fish of Wuchang.) (Gong 162) in the poem Swimming —to the tune of Shui Diao Ge Tou is a transformed form of the sentence “宁饮建业水,不食武昌鱼I would rather drink the waters of Jianye than eat the fish of Wuchang)in the book named History of the Three Kingdoms and it means that the author swims with pleasure because of the convenient communications. The original meaning of “金瓶’’(the golden bowl) in the line “收拾金瓿一片”(We have reclaimed part of the golden bowl) is used to describe the territorial integrity and
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solidity. But in Mao^ line, the territory has been disintegrated into small pieces by the warlords and it looks as if the “金瓶’’ is broken into pieces and the Red Army has reoccupied some pieces and build revolutionary base areas (Gong 35).
In addition to these kinds of allusions, there are also some words and lines which originated from classical poems. Moreover,the lines “飞起玉龙三百万”(Your three million white jade dragons in flight), “天若有情天亦老’’(Were Nature sentient, she too would pass from youth to age.),“一唱雄鸡天下白’’(Now the cock has crowed and all under heaven is bright.),“东临碣石有遗篇’’(Rode eastward to Jieshi; his poem survives) “正西风落叶下长安’’(The west wind scatters leaves over Chang’an.) and some other sentences are ingeniously used to grant new ideological meanings to build new expressions, set off the artistic effect of prominence through contrast.
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Chapter Four
TRANSLATIONS OF ALLUSIONS
 
■N MAO,S POEMS
4.1 General Description of Nine Versions of Mao's Poems
Since Edgar Snow quoted the poem Long March written by Mao Zedong in his Red Star over China in 1937, Mao was known to foreign countries. Since 1940s, Mao5s poems began to be translated into many languages and be widely read abroad. Chinese and foreign scholars interested in his poems have contributed a lot to allusion translation. So far, there are over ten English versions of Mao Zedong poems, which will help the whole world learn more about Mao5 s poems.
In this dissertation, the author selects nine English versions of Mao Zedong^ Poems as research materials, which include the official version, versions by Xu, Zhao, Huang, Gu, Zhang, the Engles, Wang and Chen. These English versions are popular in the academia; translators are all revered ones inland and abroad. They know the Chinese culture, history and the cultural meanings and origins of the allusions in Mao^ poems, at the same time, they know about the cultural backgrounds of the English language.
4.1.1 The Official Version
The version by the Foreign Languages Press is probably the most prevalent
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version which was published in 1976 although ifs not the earliest version of Mao Zedong5s poems in China. This version is also called the official version in particular by Westerners, for its publication was approved by the state authority and won the support of many Chinese scholars. People involved in the efforts are such prominent figures as Yuan Shuipai, Qiao Guanhua, Qian Zhongshu, Ye Junjian, Zhao Puchu, Zhou Jueliang and the English expert, Adler. Subsequently, a new edition of Mao Zedong^ poems which contains 39 poems is republished bilingually in 1999. In this study, the 1999 edition is chosen to enrich the study.
4.1.2 Xu Yuanchong’s Version
Xu Yuanchong is one of the biggest stars in the academia. He develops his own translation theory that is called “three-beauties principle”(aesthetics of artistic conception; aesthetics of sounds and rhymes; aesthetics of forms) (Y.C. Xu 9) and three likenesses (likeness in meaning, rhyme and form) (8). He ftxlly practices his theory in the translation of Mao5s poems. In the allusion translation, he advocates that the translator should put the three beauties in the first place, if necessary, allusion can be sacrificed to be freely translated.
Xu Yuanchong gave a long bilingual foreword in his translation of Mao’s poems to offer a general survey of his “three-beauties” principle and some details he met during the process of translating Mao^ classical poems. This version is in metrical form.
4.1.3 Zhao Zhentao’s Version
The famous female translator Han Suyin once said in the revised edition of English version of Mao’s poems by Zhao Zhentao, “Anyone who has attempted to render the terse, lapidary style of Mao into any other language has foxmd himself faced with formidable difficulties.” And she thinks ‘This attempt by Professor Zhao is probably one of the best.”(Wang 39)
It is not preferable to translate Chinese classical poems without rhymes,rhythms
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or syllables; meanwhile, the beauty of classical poems lies in the polishment and repolishment of the lines and the beauty of the moods. In order to put up clearly and explicitly the artistic conceptions of the original version, the translator concentrated his efforts on the construction of images and rhythms. Professor Zhao makes a very accurate understanding and expression in his version of Mao^ poems. In Ws version, he adopts many kinds of rhymes, such as iambus, internal assonance, full rhyme, near rhyme, alliteration and sometimes heroic couplets and so on. Sometimes, Zhao employs different poetic types of literature to translate Mao^ poems, which is another characteristic of his version.
4.1.4 Huang Long’s Version
Huang Long is a versed scholar of Chinese classical literature, and a master of many languages such as English, Japanese, Germany, and French etc. He has written lots of theses on relative translation theories and skills, and Shakespeare and so on based on the translations of movies, Chinese classical poems and novels and Mao Zedong’s poems etc. Huang Long has two English translations of Mao’s poems; the first one was translated in 1980 with 43 poems in it; the second one was published by Jiangsu Education Press in 1993 and had 7 more poems than the first one. Huang Long5s second version which we adopt in this study includes the autobiographic note, fifty translated poems and Mao’s handwritings of some poems. Poems and notes are both in English and in Chinese, and there are several colorful illustrations (Z.Z. Zhang).
4_1.5 Gu Zhengkun’s Version
Gu Zhengkun personally thinks highly of Mao’s poems so that he tried
translating them into English during 1993 when he was working in Paris. He
advocates translating Mao’s poems into English in fairly strict rhyme patterns.
According to his theory, wany work of art can, on the one hand, be subject to criticism
from the professional aesthetic critics or theorists, and, on the other, be open to
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evaluation, appreciation or condemnation from the reader. The old attempt to be the authority of interpretation of literary works seems to be scorned as an illusion.”(Gu 8) When we read his version, we will find that those poems show that beauty to a certain extent in meaning is more important than beauty in form and sound. In addition, the beauty in soimd cannot possibly be produced only through making the poems rhymed at the end of a line, which Gu tried very hard to attain. Gu5s version was translated according to the rules and forms of classical poems, which contains 50 poems, including Mao Zedong5s poems and responsory ones to his. His version is regarded as by far more excellent than the other versions inland and abroad because of its faithfulness, truebomness and fineness. Another characteristic of this version is its detailed notes of historical backgrounds, main topics and allusions and so on of the poems.


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